King Tutankhamun and His Treasures Essay -- Essays Papers

King Tutankhamun and His Treasures The ancient Egyptians were noted for many things, one of which would have been their artwork. Egyptians used many medians in their artwork that enhanced the details and beauty of every piece of art. Their artwork is fascinating and mysterious, which pulls in the viewer into wanting to learn more. One of the most important and unique Egyptian artworks belongs to King Tutankhamun, a young pharaoh of Egypt. A brief history of the discovery of King Tut’s tomb and the importance and beauty of certain pieces found in his tomb, will be discussed in this essay. King Tutankhamun’s tomb was the prize that archaeologist Howard Carter sought out for in the Valley of the Kings. Carter was running out of time and also the Earl of Carnarvon’s patience. Disappointed for years by Carter’s discoveries, Carnarvon told Carter to not apply anymore for the renewal of his excavating concession. Only by his pleading and offers to pay the cost himself if nothing were found convinced Carnarvon to add one more excavating season. At the time, thirty-three tombs had been discovered, and thieves who had pillaged and destroyed them had already broken into all. Because of this, it was believed that the Valley burial ground held no more secrets. Carter disagreed and was more determined than ever to find the tomb. Eventually, three pieces of evidence discovered by Theodore M. Davis, and examined by H. E. Winlock, led Carter to believe that King Tut’s tomb was yet to be found. The three artifacts were a faience cup bearing the pharaoh’s name, a small, mud-filled pit tomb containing pictures and inscriptions of King Tut and his wife, and the third was a collection of pottery jars, each sealed with King Tut’s seal. Carter had a hypothesis that King Tut’s tomb may be found in a small area in the Valley where archeologists had not yet dug into. It was a very strenuous job, considering the floor of the Valley was covered with tons of rock and sand, and all they had was manual labor. Soon enough though, a staircase was discovered followed by a door with its seals still intact. In 1922, Carter had indeed discovered the tomb of King Tutankhamun! King Tut became pharaoh at the age of nine and ruled for nine years until his death at eighteen. The cause of his death is unknown. The period he ruled was that of economic prosperity and some re... ...s the god Shu, holding the curved piece, which was to represent him saving the world from chaos by holding up the sky. A lion was also carved on the base on the left and right side of Shu. The base represented the earth and the lions symbolized the mountains on the western and eastern horizons. This piece has no close parallel in Egyptian art. The artwork described above was only a tiny portion of what was discovered in King Tutankhamun’s tomb. It was very interesting to see the ancient artifacts and know the purpose that each one served—jars holding organs and concoctions, musical instruments, and statues that served as protection are just a few examples of what the Egyptians used in their tombs. Their art represents how loyal and elegant the Egyptian culture was. Even though King Tutankhamun was not one of the most famous pharaohs, his treasures will live on and educate people into knowing more about him and the Egyptians. Bibliography Buckley, Tom, and Wente F., Edward. Treasures of Tutankhamun. Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1976. â€Å"Tutankhamen.† Encarta, 1998 ed. CD-ROM. Microsoft, 1998. National Geographic Society. Ancient Egypt. Washington D.C., 1978.

Which Stakeholders Can Currently Be Considered to Be Part of the “the Company” for the Purpose of the Director’s Duty to Act in the Best Interests of the Corporation?

which stakeholders can currently be considered to be part of the â€Å"the company† for the purpose of the director’s duty to act in the best interests of the corporation? Company is a form of corporation and regulated by the Corporations Act. The legal significance of being as a company is it exists as a separate legal entity and dependent upon human beings to make decisions on their behalf. The person who makes or participates in making decisions that affect the whole or a substantial part of the company’s business can be defined as a director. The legal definition of director is stated under section 9 of the Corporations Act[1] which indicates that, it is more appropriate to look at the function of the people rather than at the job title itself. Duties are imposed on the directors to regular illegal behavior and ensure that they act for the benefit of the company. All directors and officers of a corporation are bound by a number of general law and statutes which include that: a) act in good faith in the interests of the company; b) act for a proper purpose; c) avoid conflicts of interest; and ) retain discretion Moreover, care, skill and diligence in the performance of their duties must exercised by directors. Stakeholder can be defined as a party that affects or can be affected by the actions of the business[2], which may be include shareholder, creditors, employees, customer, supplier and government. Under the principle of the company law, directors and officers owe duties to the company as a whole but not to the other p erson or group rather that shareholder as they are the residual owners of the company’s assets. As a result, it can be said that a scope is limited by the statutory duties to the company’ director and officer is to act the best interest of shareholder, any benefit is acting on the other group of the stakeholder (such as the creditor) will beyond the scope of director’ power. In addition, an essential problem might be arisen between the director and the shareholder is known as â€Å"agency costs† that is the cost incurred by company to ensure that the director (who manages the company) is acting on the behalf of shareholders (who is the owner of the company) and make decisions onsist with their best interest. The duty will be breached by each director if there is no action done to avoid a conflict of interest[3]. A director can not use his or her power to profit personally interest at expense of the company. An action may be brought against the company where it has managed in an oppressive, unfairly prejudicial or unfairly discriminatory against shareholderà ¢â‚¬â„¢s interest. Therefore, it seems that the company (shareholder) is the only beneficiary by the regulation of director’s duties. In other words, the enforcement of director’s duties is for the benefit of the shareholders. 2) Should directors duties, and corporate responsibilities, be extended to a wider group of stakeholders? What are the lessons from the James Hardie and the Waterfront Dispute experience? It is a challenge for the current legal framework to consider a wider group of stakeholder’ interest, as in modern society that greater deal of business and activities conducted by a company. Elena suggests that balance between the different groups of stakeholders is essential to the long-term viability of the corporation and the long-term shareholder’s value can be increased by taking account of the other group of the stakeholder. 4] For example, an under market salary is paid to the employees or the employees are scheduled in an inefficient way w ill result in a decreasing of shareholder’s wealth as the productivity of the company is affected by the dissatisfied employees. Hence, according to the definition of the stakeholder, employee can be classified as a stakeholder who will maximize shareholder’ wealth in a long-term. As a result, the maximization of stakeholder’ value goal might not only be concentrated on the shareholder but the other group such as creditor and employee. The reasons why the director’s duty might be extended to the group of creditor can be stated as: creditor is a important stakeholder in the company and their interest should be taken into account; and also, based on the judgments of the decided case, it also indicates that there is a demand for director to regard the interest of creditor. Firstly, a company is a separate legal entity[5]. Therefore, the debt of the company is separated from its directors and shareholders. In addition, the money borrowed will be recorded under the name of the company and the creditor will sue the company if there is any unpaid account. However, creditor is playing an important role in providing funds to assist company to manage its cashflow and expansions. Hence, it can be said that creditor is the stakeholder and can effect the action of the business. Nevertheless, according to the passage Re New World Alliance Pty Ltd (1994) 122 ALR 531 at 550,[6] there is not direct duty owed by the director and officer to the creditors because their duties are owed to the company. However, in the situation when the directors of company consider a high risk project or it is in a financial distress, the creditor has to occupy a weakness position. This is because, if the project fails, shareholder will lose nothing but the money they have invested due to the limited liability then the risk of filature will shift to the creditor. Hence, it seems unfair for creditor who has not fiduciary protection and whose right is limited by the contract. On the other hands, according to the passage Re New World Alliance Pty Ltd (1994) 122 ALR 531 at 550,[7] there is not direct duty owed by the director and officer to the creditors because their duties are owed to the company. The only time that the director’ duties are owed to creditor is when company is insolvency[8] and during that time, the creditor is entitled to displace the power of the directors and shareholders to deal with the company’s assets[9]. It can be argued that it is riskless for the secured creditor who holds a charge over a part or all of the company's assets during the company’s insolvency. If the company is in financial distress, a receiver is appointed by the secured creditor to collect and look after the company’s asset in order to obtain money for them[10]. However, it is not easy for the creditor to claim all their money back according to: firstly, the money collected has to pay the certain priority claims, including employee entitlements (such as wages, superannuation contributions and leave payments) before paying to creditor; and secondly, director does not owe directly duty of care for the interest of creditor, this might result in a less consideration of managing and taking care of the asset that is held by the creditor. Therefore, creditor who provides fund for company to operate or expand is playing a significant role to a company and their weakness position should be taken in to account and redeemed by the director’s duty and the corporate responsibilities. In addition, duty has been referred to the judgments of the decided cases. The emergence of the issue to regard the creditor’ interest is from the leading judgment by Mason  J in Walker v Wimborne. 11] His statement has been acknowledged by the other courts such as in Australia, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. Also, according to the obiter comments in the recent case Spies v The Queen, the court has again acknowledged that there is an existence of the duty to creditor. As a result, it seems that protection for creditor’s interest is required in some certain circumstances. [pic][pic][pic] ———————– [1] Section 9 defines a director as: a) a person who: ) is appointe d to the position of a director; or ii) is appointed to the position of an alternate director and is acting in that capacity; regardless of the name that is given to their position; and b) unless the contrary intention appears, a person who is not validly appointed as a director of: i) they act in the position of a director; or ii) the directors of the company or body are accustomed to act in accordance with the person’s instructions or wishes. [2] http://www. scu. edu. u/schools/gcm/ar/arp/stake. html [3] Relevant section under the Statue Law: Section 182(1) – Use of Position; Section 183(1) – Use of Information; Section 191(1) – Disclosure of Interest. Also, under the Common Law – Fiduciary Duties. [4] â€Å"Corporate governance: shareholders’ interest and other stakeholders’ interest. † http://www. virtusinterpress. com/additional_files/journ_coc/full-text-papers-open-access/Paper006. pdf [5] The principle is established in Salomon v Salomon & Co ? 1897? AC 22 [6] Harris, Hargovan and Adams: Australian Corporate Law, 1st ed, Page417. [7] Harris, Hargovan and Adams: Australian Corporate Law, 1st ed, Page417. [8] A company is insolvent if: 1. It is unable to pay its debts as they fall due. 2. Its assets are less than the amount of its liabilities, taking into account its contingent and prospective liabilities. [9] Kinsela v Russell Kinsela Pty. Ltd. (in liq. ) (1986) 4 NSWLR 722. [10] In some special circumstance, it may appointed by the court. Eg: where there is a dispute between the owners of the company or the property over which the receiver is appointed [11] His Honour said: In this respect it should be emphasised that the directors of a company in discharging their duty to the company must take account of the interest of its shareholders and its creditors. Any failure by the directors to take into account the interests of creditors will have adverse consequences for the company as well as for them.

Jan Ingenhousz Scientist Who Discovered Photosynthesis

Jan Ingenhousz (December 8, 1730 - September 7, 1799) was an 18th century Dutch physician, biologist, and chemist who discovered how plants convert light into energy, the process known as photosynthesis. He is also credited with discovering that plants, similar to animals, undergo the cellular respiration process. Fast Facts: Jan Ingenhousz Born: December 8, 1730, in Breda, NetherlandsDied: September 7, 1799, in Wiltshire, EnglandParents: Arnoldus Ingenhousz and Maria (Beckers) IngenhouszSpouse: Agatha Maria JacquinKnown For: Discovery of photosynthesis and inoculating Hapsburg family against smallpoxEducation: MD from the University of LeuvenKey Accomplishments: Discovered the photosynthetic process and was a leading proponent of variolation in the mid to late 1700s.  Elected to the Royal Society of London as a fellow in 1769. Early Years and Education Jan Ingenhousz was born in Breda, Netherlands, to Arnoldus Ingenhousz and Maria (Beckers) Ingenhousz. He had one older brother, Ludovicus Ingenhousz, who became an apothecary. Little information about Ingenhouszs parents survived, but it is generally believed that they were able to provide their sons with what would have been considered an outstanding early education at that time. At around the age of 16, Ingenhousz completed the Latin school in his hometown and began studying medicine at the University of Leuven. He received his medical degree in 1753. He also did advanced studies at Leiden University. During his time at Leiden, he interacted with Pieter van Musschenbroek, who invented the first electrical capacitor in 1745/1746. Ingenhousz would develop a lifelong interest in electricity as well. Career and Research After his university studies, Ingenhousz began a general medical practice in his hometown of Breda. While the practice was successful, Ingenhousz was curious about a number of scientific subjects and kept up with experiments in the sciences in his off hours. He was greatly interested in physics and chemistry, particularly in the study of electricity. He studied the electricity generated by friction and developed an electrical machine, but continued to practice medicine in Breda until the death of his father. After his fathers death, he was interested in studying inoculation techniques, particularly those concerning smallpox, so he traveled to London and became known as a competent inoculator. Ingenhousz helped to inoculate some 700 villagers in Hertfordshire to stop a smallpox epidemic, and he also helped to inoculate King George IIIs family. Around this time, the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa became interested in inoculating her family against smallpox after one of her family members died from the disease. Due to his reputation and prior work in the field, Ingenhousz was selected to perform the inoculations. The inoculation of the Austrian Royal family was successful and he then became the Empress court physician. Due to his success in inoculating the royal family,  he was greatly revered in Austria. At the request of the Empress Maria Theresa, he then went to Florence, Italy, and inoculated the man who would become Kaiser Leopold II. Ingenhousz was very successful with his inoculation work and was one of the leading proponents of variolation, which derives its name from the scientific name for smallpox, variola. Variolation was an early method for immunizing against the disease. Over time, vaccination against smallpox became the norm, but at the time, Edward Jenner and others used an animal infection, cowpox, to vaccinate humans to protect them from smallpox. Those who were infected with cowpox were then also immune if they were later exposed to smallpox. Ingenhouszs work helped with the reduction in deaths from smallpox, and his methods served as a transition to the vaccines used today. While variolation used a live virus, typical vaccination methods used today use attenuated (weakened) or inactivated viruses, which makes them much safer. While he was very successful in this field, the stress was immense and his health began to suffer. He stayed in Florence for some time for health reasons. During this time he visited with Abbe Fontana, a physicist. This visit helped to peak his interest in the mechanisms of gas exchange in plants. In 1775, Ingenhousz married Agatha Maria Jacquin in Vienna. Photosynthesis Discovery In the late 1770s, Ingenhousz moved to Calne, a small town located in Wiltshire, in the southwestern portion of England, where he turned his attention to plant research. His colleague Joseph Priestley had discovered oxygen there a few years prior and Ingenhousz conducted his research at the same place. During his experiments, he put various plants underwater in transparent containers so that he could observe what was happening. He noticed that when the plants were in the light, bubbles appeared under the leaves of the plants. When the same plants were placed in the darkness, he noticed that the bubbles stopped forming after some time. He also noted that it was the leaves as well as other green portions of the plants that were producing the bubbles. He then collected the bubbles of gas produced by the plants and conducted a number of tests to attempt to determine its identity. After a great many tests, he found that a smoldering candle would reignite from the gas. Thus, Ingenhousz deduced that the gas was oxygen. During his experiments he also deduced that these same plants released carbon dioxide when they were in the dark. Lastly, he noted that the overall amount of oxygen that the plants give off in the light was more than the carbon dioxide released in the dark. Ingenhousz published Experiments upon Vegetables, Discovering Their Great Power of Purifying the Common Air in the Sunshine, and of Injuring it in the Shade and at Night in 1799 before his death. His work was translated into several languages and led to the foundation of our modern understanding of photosynthesis. Death and Legacy Ingenhouszs work on the photosynthetic process allowed others to detail the intricacies of the process by building on his work. While Ingenhousz is most known for his work with photosynthesis, the diversity of his work allowed him to make valuable contributions in a number of scientific areas. He is credited with discovering that plants, like animals, undergo cellular respiration. In addition, Ingenhousz studied electricity, chemistry, and heat conduction. Ingenhousz also noted the movement of coal dust in alcohol. This movement would come to be known as Brownian motion, for the scientist who is generally credited with the discovery, Robert Brown. While Brown is credited, some believe that Ingenhouszs discovery predated Robert Browns by approximately 40 years, thus changing the scientific discovery timeline. Jan Ingenhousz died on September 7,1799 in Wiltshire, England. He had been in ill health for quite some time prior to his death. Sources â€Å"Jan Ingenhousz.† Biography, www.macroevolution.net/jan-ingenhousz.html.  Harvey, R B and H M Harvey. â€Å"JAN INGEN-HOUSZ† Plant physiology vol. 5,2 (1930): 282.2-287, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC440219/